UK National Health Service Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

UK National Health Service - Assignment Example Since then, the government is engaged in expanding the scope of health and social care policy  as  an attempt to become the best welfare state.   First published in 1942, Social Insurance and Allied  service, which was widely known as Beveridge Report, was the work of Sir William Beveridge. The aim was to take the state towards  the welfare  state. In 1942, this influential report was completed and published.   He described various maladies such as disease, idleness, ignorance, squalor as the giant evils and proposed wide-spread reforms in each area (Beveridge, 1969). This report also became the basis for the scheme for free school meals and vaccination against diphtheria for the children who were studying the school. As the medical profession criticized the separation of NHS in 3 parts, local health authorities, general practice, and hospitals, the unification of these services were approved with Enoch Powell’s Hospital Plan. The aim of this report was to do  an investigation  in prevalent inequality in healthcare services in  the country  despite the founding of NHS and was commissioned by  then-secretary of  state, David  Ennuals. This plan brought about  the biggest  change in healthcare in  the country  with increased funding and reform to eliminate geographical inequalities, extension in patient choice and improvement in service  standards.   The concept of welfare state includes the key role of the state in promotion as well as protection of its citizens which includes health, social and economic being. The Poor laws implemented by Royal commission in 1832 anticipated the modern UK welfare state. They were ceased when it was found that they were abused by people. As  the labor party  became  very popular with the people, the Liberal party initiated Liberal  welfare  reforms and laid the foundation of the modern state.  Gradually, they were extended  to  all fields during next 40 years.

Responsibility of Ethics Essay Example for Free

Responsibility of Ethics Essay Ethical standing among community members and business persons is held in high regard.   The matter of trust needs to be had at all times so that people know that their information is safe.   When ethical issues arise, somewhere, somehow there has to be someone who is able and willing to stand up and report the unethical issue.   All professionals are bound by ethics and the responsibility to report wrong doing. In this case, the widow’s attorney is charging the widow 12-14% more than his average percentage with respects to his other clients.    Normal everyday ethics suggest that not only is he acting in bad ethics but obviously is taking advantage of this widow.   Charlie, even if not mandated by law or administrative rule, should inform the widow.   This would be the right and respectful thing to do but is Charlie mandated by any code of ethics to act on this information and inform her is the real question. Charlie, even though he is not the person creating the ethical situation, is bound by ethical codes to inform this widow at the very least but more appropriately the governing agency, of the actions of her attorney.  Ã‚   As stated in the AICPA Code of Professional Conduct for CPA’s â€Å"members should act with integrity, guided by the precept that when members fulfill their responsibility to the public, clients and employers interests are best served.† (ET Section 53 Article II—The Public Interest, ET Section 52 Article I—Responsibilities, ET Section 54 Article III—Integrity    ET Section 56 Article V—Due Care of the AICPA). The biggest ethical issue is honesty, integrity and the personal gain issues.   The attorney stands to gain a substantial amount of money, well more than what he should for his services.   The code of ethics for attorney’s alone is violated is drastic ways.   Some states have statutes on how an attorney charges their client and some rely of good ethical behavior but this aside, attorneys are to charge only what is fair and consistent with how they charge everyone else. This attorney is violating a huge public interest and the widow can file a complaint and the attorney stands to lose his liscense to practice law.   Charlie can also intervene and simply make a phone call to the governing agency as this particular information that he knows, is not bound by the confidentiality laws as this information was derived not by the widows words but by the admittance of the attorney in which there is no confidentiality as there is no client issue due to the fact that Charlie is not asking for advice and the lawyer is not giving it. Works Cited AICPA Code of Professional Conduct.   2006-2008.   http://www.aicpa.org/About/code/sec50.htm New Jersey Judiciary. Office of Attorney Ethics. 2001 http://www.judiciary.state.nj.us/oae/OAEEthicsPamphlet.pdf

The relevance of coaching and mentoring

The relevance of coaching and mentoring Coaching and mentoring both are considered to be very important activities in organisation working in the current business era, where there is high competition among different competitors in market with different types of quality products and services. All these organisations in modern management strongly believe in the development of the human resources in their as they consider humans as an asset and important resource for achievement of their organisational goals and objectives. So the make human able to carry out their job roles successfully and to make sure the achievement of the organisation objective by their hard work, skills and motivation, organisations arrange activities like coaching and mentoring to achieve their objectives through human resources in the organisation. Coaching and mentoring are popular capacity-building tools, especially in the area of leadership development. They are often mentioned in proposals and reviews as key elements of good capacity-building practice. Yet despite their current status, many of us are unclear what coaching and mentoring really involves, and where and when they work. [6] This assignment is about the understanding of the basic concepts of coaching and mentoring, the basic definitions of these two terms, what is the difference among the concepts and processes of coaching and mentoring, and what are the processes that organisation use to hire or develop a proper coach or mentor in their organisation. Objectives of Assignment This assignment is divided into two task, following are the objectives and requirements of each individual tasks. Task 1 The objectives / requirements of task one of assignment are Define the terms mentoring and coaching Demonstrate a critical and clear understanding of the differences between mentoring and coaching Critical reflection of skills required to be an effective coach and mentor Coaching and mentoring processes Leadership behaviors (particular attention must be paid to theories on motivation, learning and emotional intelligence) and styles that accommodate mentoring and coaching strategies Task 2 Following are the objectives / requirements of the task two of the assignment Critically evaluate how the current academic debate on coaching and mentoring will enable you as a Human Resources Manager to instill the importance and value of coaching and mentoring to organizations. Critically reflect on how your academic research on coaching and mentoring has contributed to the development of your subject knowledge on Human resources. Critically reflect on your achievement of any two of the module learning outcomes Definition of Mentoring Mentoring is an indefinite, relationship based activity with several specific but wide ranging goals. It does not have to be a formal process. The mentor is a facilitator who works with either an individual or a group of people over an extended time period. The agenda is open and continues to evolve over the longer term. Mentoring seeks to build wisdom the ability to apply skills, knowledge and experience to new situations and processes. [2] Mentoring relationships can deliver a number of critical benefits to nonprofit organizations and their employees. They can accelerate learning and expand the overall competency base of staff. They can help assure organizational agility, flexibility, and resourcefulness in difficult times, drawing on the guidance of seasoned professionals. They can improve the quality of work products and services through the use of feedback loops. They can strengthen networks and build collaborative ties between the organizations or work units where mentors and mentees are based. And they can help protect nonprofits from unforeseen liabilities, as mentors help mentees assess risks and manage challenges. Mentorship fosters employee loyalty and commitment, improving morale while enriching organizational culture making it more humane and accountable to community. [3] The activities of mentoring a very important when there are some persons in organization at senior positions, got good experience of working with organization, have good knowledge of organization products and services, good understanding of the organizational structures and procedures, and that person wants to voluntarily or through the set procedure of the mentoring for the organization with new and un experienced employees in very informal, and friendly way. Different organization irrespective of the structure, size and business of the organization are getting benefits from the process and procedures of mentoring. Definition of Coaching To survive and make the organization a prosper institute in the tough era of competition, it is needed from the organizations to perform at their best with high level of effectiveness and motivation towards the achievement of their organizational goals and objectives. This clearly indicate that certain skills like leadership skills, taking right decision on right time (decision making) relationships between different staff members, creation and innovation activities, time management, stress management, controlling issue of high importance, conducting and controlling meetings effectively are all those skills and activities which the organizations has to be at very best in order to capture a prominent position in the market. To carry out all the above activities in proper way the organization can grab the benefits of all these, the term coaching are use. As there is no one agreed on definition of coaching exit but different management writer have come up with their own definition, in all of them some terms remains the same like working for the betterment of skills and informations in organization through a very structured process. The term coaching includes activities related to developing the organizational capacity of whole organization (such as increasing leadership for instructional reform). It includes helping management and employees reallocate their resources and improve their use of data in the service of improving instruction and it includes activities directly related to improving instruction (such as one on one observation and feedback of employees instructional strategies and small group learning of new content and pedagogy). [1] The focus of coaching is on meeting very specific objectives within a set period of time. Coaching is mainly concerned with performance and the development of certain skills. It usually takes place on a one-to-one basis and has a very specific purpose. There is usually a planned program with a much shorter timeframe than in mentoring, so the learning goals are usually determined in advance. [2] Mentoring and coaching can be stand alone activities, but they can also be used to complement each other. Characteristics of coaching Following are the main characteristics of the coaching presented by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD), and most of the coaching professionals agree with these characteristics and consider these characteristics as fundamentals for coaching activities in the organization. This is development through one to one discussion. Give people understanding on their weaknesses and strengths. The aim of coaching is to address a specific issue. It is considered as short term activity, but its impact is very long term. This is known as non directive development The purpose of coaching is the improvement of performance and enhancing skills of individuals and team members working in the organization. It addresses different issues with the internal environment of the organization, and external organization. The organizations conduct coaching activities for the achievement of both organizational and individual goals. This is time specific activity. It works on the premise that clients are self-aware, or can achieve self-awareness. It is a skilled activity Benefits of coaching and mentoring The coaching and mentoring helps organization in enhancing their human resources skills and make them able to carry out their job roles and responsibilities in way which is efficient, effective and which helps the management of the organization to achieve their business goals and organization objectives. The coaching and mentoring makes the management able to fold the employees activities and role in the way that they want, it helps individuals working in organization in the improvement of their personal and professional skills, and make the employees able to achieve their individual targets and those of organization. It provide the employees a safe space to delegate Enhance the skills which the individuals encompass Ability of learning new skills Provide an insight into yours skills as a coach and mentor and also to those of others. Get unbiased, confidential support Provide fresh prospective on the related issues to work, workplace and organization environment. Provide the opportunity to make biased things clear between the individuals in the organization. Difference between coaching and mentoring The differences between coaching and mentoring are often considered being very min, even most of the people think it coaching and mentoring as different names of same concepts, and it can be difficult to distinguish between coaching, mentoring and counseling. In practice, mentoring for example is sometimes used interchangeably with coaching. Traditionally, however, mentoring in the workplace has tended to describe a relationship in which a more experienced colleague used their greater knowledge and understanding of the work or workplace to support the development of a more junior or inexperienced member of staff. Similarly, it can be hard to draw a clear distinction between coaching and counseling, not least because many of the theoretical underpinnings of coaching are drawn from the worlds of counseling and therapy. For the purpose of managing coaching services the key distinction to be drawn is that coaching is for those who are psychologically well; a coach should be able to recognize where an individual is so distressed by personal or social issues that he or she needs to be referred to specialist counseling or other support. Coaching and mentoring processes According to Robert Dilts different organizations and individuals work on development activities in different forms, these activities are conducted by managers sometime while by some organizations uses the concept and approach of internal and external mentors and coaches. Robert Dilts define the following process for coaching and mentoring Guiding: This the process which leads individuals and groups within organization from their current state to the to a desired state in their personal and professional life, same is the case like a car journey, the person driving is on current location and decides the target location and plan a certain path to reach the target. Coaching: is the process of improving another persons awareness about the deficiencies in his / her field and area of work, sets a target for that individual to achieve and improve a certain behavioral performance. Teaching: is the simple process of helping individuals and groups by an expert person to develop the skills and learning knowledge about a particular thing, place or person. Mentoring: helping to shape an individuals beliefs and values in a positive way; often a longer term career relationship from someone who has done it before Counseling: is the process of helping an individual to improve performance by resolving situations from the past. Every event that occurs in coaching is tied to activities in someones head. (Some people may argue that coaching is more heart based. Whatever your perspective is on this, consider that emotions have correlates in the brain too.) This means that a brain-based approach should underpin and explain every good coaching model and provide the field with an underpinning science. A brain-based approach is going to be inclusive and bring the disparate field to greater cohesion. Second, a brain-based approach to coaching looks attractive when you think about the other contenders for a foundational discipline, the obvious one being psychology. From an organizational perspective, psychology suffers from a mixed history and a perception of being unscientific. While psychologists are the first people called on if someone is in crisis, most senior leaders would not consider them for improving performance because of the bias they assume psychologists have for therapeutic languages and models. A brain-based approach on the other hand is something tangible and physical. We live in a materialistic world where organizations respect things that can be measured. To bring about the wide- scale use of coaching as a learning or transformation tool, we need to speak to organizations in a language they understand. [4] The main reason it may be time to build a brain-based approach to coaching is simply how profoundly useful this approach is. It is interesting to be able to explain in scientific terms why the brain needs coaches, but it is even more useful to know how coaching helps the brain improve its functioning. This points us to ways we can better measure, manage and deliver coaching initiatives, whether one to one, training internal coaches, or in teaching coaching skills to thousands of leaders. [4] When to choose coaching and mentoring For the management of any organization it is very important to choose between the activities of coaching and mentoring, their always remain some space for the improvement in organization, but the selection of activities of coaching or mentoring largely depends on the nature of the improvement that the management wants in organization, or the weaknesses they feel and want to overcome on. The below table shows information regarding coaching and mentoring and will provide idea to the management of the organization on what to chose and when to chose. Mentoring may be best whenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Coaching may be best whenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. The employee needs an expert or sponsor The employee will benefit from specific knowledge about the organizations culture, values, and norms, especially when the information is informal and difficult to obtain from traditional sources The employee is reasonably clear about their career and developmental goals The employee will be helped by receiving direction The employee is a senior or more experienced leader; or where developmental issues may require strict confidentiality There is a strong desire or need to practice, apply, or implement new skills and behaviors, and excellent complement to traditional training. The employee realizes there is a gap between where they are and where they want to be (skills, knowledge, career, achievement, etc), but isnt sure how to address it The employee will be helped by sustained, objective support Skills required for good coach and mentor Getting people to change is becoming increasingly important in our rapidly changing work environment. The dominant view of organizational leaders is that getting people to change just requires information and the right motivation: we need to know what has to be changed, and then use incentives to inspire people to behave differently. This is a reductionist perspective, which works well in any linear system: if a machine breaks down, we work out logically where the source of the problem is, and then simply replace the part. However, if the thing broken is someones communication style, finding this out and trying to replace the part is not realistic. In fact, the more information we have about a human problem, the deeper the problem may become. [5] The above discussion shows the complication of the process of coaching and mentoring, that both of these are not an easy task to do, and it often requires skills, abilities and experience in the relevant field for the person who is going to take the position as coach or mentor in the organization. The skills required by a coach or mentor also depends on the field in which he / she is going to provide the mentoring or coaching facility, following is brief description of the most popular skills required by a coach and mentor in order to fully satisfy the needs of his / her job role. Skills required for good coach As coaching is a very structures and organized activity in each and every organization, so the person who is to be called coach must be having enough skills and abilities to organize people, lead people, and plan well in order to improve the humans skills and abilities and also to overcome on their weaknesses. Following are core skills to be found in a good coach. Must be able to provide facilitate clarification of the goal Available to employees all the time to guide them from a start point to the finish Maintain a threshold to keep focus/track Provide sufficient knowledge and help to employees that they may overcome on hurdles in pursuit of the goal. Strong Interpersonal Skills Technical Competence Patience Trustworthiness A Non-judgmental Attitude Belief in Lifelong Learning Skill at Providing Instructional Support Good Listening Skills Skills required for a Mentor As mentoring is more focused on individual relations in organization, normally this relation exits between an experienced and new staff member, the experienced member of staff is normally called as mentor, so the requirements from mentor is that he / she must have enough experience to work for that organization, and have all the related data and information on the products, services, and structure of the organization. A successful mentor should have the following skills Able to corrects mistakes Acts as a personal cheering squad Guides in improving the future Provides counsel and wisdom Supports the journey from fantasy to reality Provokes thought and wider perspectives Leadership behaviors and styles The activities and processes of coaching and mentoring needs the role of leader in organization who initiate the process, set the targets for it, and then plan the procedures to achieve the targets by proper coaching and mentoring activities, and during these activities also evaluate the process and its success by setting milestones, and motivate their team members and employees towards the achievement of their career and organization business objectives. Coaching and mentoring are two personal development methods that nurture a persons own abilities in order to improve behavior and performance. The processes of coaching and mentoring are similar insofar as they are both a series of conversations (spoken or written) between two individuals. However, there are subtle but significant differences in aim, emphasis and style. Coaching tends to be viewed as more task-oriented, skills-focused, directed and time-bound, whereas mentoring is more focused on open-ended personal development. The reality is that there is considerable convergence and overlap between these approaches. To get the best out of mentoring and coaching, we need to start by exploring their origin, evolution and application to leadership development. [6] The achievement of organizational goals largely depends on the humans working for that organization organizes different activities and the results of those activities depends on how much they are dedicated towards those activities and how much the organization staff members are motivated. The word motivation is common in everyday language, but is not easy to define rigorously in a scientific context. The concept of motivation is related to, but distinct from other concepts, such as instincts, drives, and reflexes. Motivated behavior is usually goal oriented; the goal may be associated with a drive such as hunger or thirst (called primary motivation). However, motivation is also closely tied to sensory stimuli: an animal will not usually exhibit eating behavior unless food is presented. Unlike instinctive behavior, motivation depends on affect (emotional state). Finally, motivation can be learned (in which case it is called secondary motivation) and typically elicits more complex beha viors than simple reflexes. Motivation theories and coaching / mentoring There are so many motivation theories by different management writer; the focus of each and every motivational theory is on the fulfillments of the needs of individual working for that organization and through highly motivated humans the achievement of the organizational goals. In this part of the assignment I will focus only on one motivational theory (Hull theory) which is very closely related to the gaining motivation of employees through different activities of coaching and mentoring. Hulls Theory Hulls theory provides a framework within which motivated behavior can be analyzed. Hull (1943) proposed that the initiation of learned, or habitual, patterns of movement or behavior is called motivation. In addition, Hull proposed a distinction between primary motivation, the evocation of action in relation to primary needs, and secondary motivation, the evocation of action in relation to secondary reinforcing stimuli or incentives. Primary motivation is the cornerstone of Hulls drive reduction theory. According to Hull, events that threaten survival give rise to internal drive states, and behaviors that act to reduce drive are thus rewarding. For instance, lack of food causes an increase in the hunger drive, and the consumption of food is rewarding because it leads to a reduction in the hunger drive. In our daily experiences we are faced with a continuously fluctuating combination of multiple drives and incentives. Somehow we must be able to select the behavior that is most appropriate in a given situation, while suppressing other, less adequate behaviors. Thus, motivated behavior requires a form of competition. According to Hull, at any given time the behavior with the greatest potential to reduce a given drive is released. If the drive persists, that behavior is inhibited, and the second strongest response in the drive hierarchy will be released, and so on. The concept of the Hulls theory shows that organization can get the benefits of the employees skills and knowledge about the job role if that employee is highly motivated, and motivation can only be gained through proper process of coaching and mentoring activities. Assignment Task 2 The requirements from this task are to measure and critical evaluate the current academic debate, and also a critical reflection of the learning during this course and assignment. Evaluation of academic debate We have described motivation as the internal force that energizes behaviors, and that determines which particular behavior will be emitted in response to a given set of environmental stimuli and to the internal needs of an organism. Motivation is a complex topic of research that has been studied from many different approaches. During this coursework I come across the different areas of management which focuses on the development of human resources in the organizations in order to achieve the organization goals and objectives, coaching and mentoring are the two most important activities in this regard which are most widely used and practiced in different organizations. The theories of different management writers have declare the motivation as the key factor in getting human involve in the activities of the organization which will not only results in the betterment of the individual skills and learning but also make the organization goals achievements realistic one. The academic debate during this course was very enough to meet the requirements in proper way and make the students able to understand the core of the issues which influences organization business and why they need to have an individual or group of individuals as coach and mentor in the organization and they use different motivation concepts in order to motivate the organization staff to get the desired results of the process. The nature of coaching and mentoring activities also depend largely on the size and structure of the organization, the nature of their business, the products and services they produce and how much they are focused on the personal and professional skills development of the humans working for them. These activities help in micro skills development, and the micro-skills of coaching include helping the manager develop the skills and attitudes to help and individual manage situations from within their own resources (Egan, 2004). During this stage of the training, the individual is introduced to the concepts of Empathy, Respect and Genuineness. Reflection on academic learning During this module I come across different concepts of human resource development in the organization, how to motivate individuals working for organization, how the management of the organization implement different management theories in order to get the desired results of the activities like coaching and mentoring, the process of human resource development and motivation, that how an individual working for or on the behalf of the organization can be motivated to put their hundred percent in performing their job role and focusing toward their personal and professional skills development, and through the proper use of their skills and knowledge the achievement of their organizational goals and objectives, while the employees must understand the importance of the coaching and mentoring activities which the management of the organization conduct for them and actively participate in those activities for their own personal and professional skills development, and learn the knowledge and information which will make them able to perform their job role very efficient and effectively. Conclusion and Recommendations To achieve the business goals and organizational objectives organizations use the different approaches which are discussed in very detail in this assignment. In this part the conclusion is given of the overall debate some recommendations for organization management who wish to improve the standard of coaching and mentoring in their organizations. Coaching had its origins in the world of sports, with coaches helping competitors to achieve success through structured and focused instruction and tutoring. In the 1980s, executives of major companies realized the potential a coaching-style intervention could have in helping them to work more effectively. Such approaches also permeated the development world. In the 1990s the Community Development Resource Association (CDRA) in South Africa was using such an approach as part of its development practitioner formation programs. Mentoring has been practiced in different cultures for hundreds of years. But it is only recently that mentoring has been (re)discovered by the private sector, and now by the civil society sector, as a mechanism for leadership development. The origin of mentoring can be traced back to Greek mythology. When Odysseus left home to fight in the Trojan War, he placed an old, trusted family friend, Mentor, in charge of his household, thereby delegating responsibility for protecting and educating his son Telemachus. A mentor therefore conjures up images of a wise and trusted advisor or counselor. Some African scholars make the point that such roles were commonplace in Africa long before ancient Greek civilization. The extensive literature on coaching and mentoring reveals no single definition of either term, but rather a collection of definitions that help form a picture of what the processes involve. Much of the literature explores different models that can be used and adapted by coaches and mentors, depending on their personal style and their situation. According to many definitions, while coaching and mentoring share the same principles, coaching is primarily focused on performance within the current job and emphasizes development tools, while mentoring focuses on longer-term goals and developing capability. The word motivation is common in everyday language, but is not easy to define rigorously in a scientific context. The concept of motivation is related to, but distinct from other concepts, such as instincts, drives, and reflexes. Motivated behavior is usually goal oriented; the goal may be associated with a drive such as hunger or thirst (called primary motivation). Those organizations who wish to improve the standard of their human resources through structured process of coaching and mentoring, I will suggest the following in light of what I studied during this course and preparation of the assignment. Try to make the human resource management department well structured and influential on the decision making regarding human development in the organization. Hire only those individuals as coach or mentor in the organization who have past track record of working in such organization environment. Satisfy the needs of the human resources in order to make them highly motivated. Motivated employees can only focus towards their personal and professional skills development and can contribute to the goals and objective achievement of the organization. The organization needs to invest in their human resource, and this investment will lead them to become the market leader in their product and services. The management should always identify the weak areas and the need for coaching or mentoring, and the employees should fully cooperate with the management to achieve the best of results from the process.

The Social Benefits of Mass Communication Essays -- Mass Media Mass Co

The Social Benefits of Mass Communication Mass communications, like anything for humans, has its advantages and disadvantages, but mass media has far more advantages to offer the world. From taking you to a far off land to teaching you about the intricacies of the life inside a colony of ants, to surfing the Internet for a new chat group to join, we learn and experience things and events that no humans ever before in history have experienced through this miracle we call mass media. This paper will explore the multifaceted and unique areas of the public’s perception of mass media, the educational value of the media, and the Internet as a new mass medium. The public has always had an interesting relationship with mass media because it is the public that is breaths life into this organism called the mass media machine. From the earliest time periods in human history mass media was communicated through â€Å"word of mouth,† and it was that very relationship that spawned small town gossip in the middle ages , where information like what the local lord was doing and if he was hanging anyone that week for insubordination. Word of mouth continued until the invention of the printing press in 1436 when the news of the town could be told and recorded forever. A present-day survey taken about what the public’s view on the media is from the article, â€Å"Who Do You Trust and Why?,† by Joe Saltzman says that â€Å"... the public’s use and view of its media, shows that word of mouth is less trusted than CNN, public television news, local television news, and prime-time TV news magazines. News anchors Americanâ€⠄¢s see on television are considered more reliable as sources of accurate information than personal acquaintances† (par 3). This ... ...ve all made impacts on who we are as humans and what we will become in the future as we progress through the ages. Hopefully mass media will last several more hundred years being that mass media is only fairly recent when human history is considered. Works Cited Gabler, Neal. â€Å"The Net-Setters.† The Los Angeles Times 27 June 1999: 3 pgs. 22 March 2000 Online Proquest. Hogan, Majorie, â€Å"Media Education.† Pediatrics Aug. 1999 22 March 2000 Online Proquest. Huston, Aletha C. â€Å"Television and the Informational and Educational Needs of Children.† Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science May 1998: 9-23. 22 March 2000 Online Proquest. Saltzman, Joe. â€Å"Why Do You Trust and Why.† USA Today Jan. 2000: p. 59 22 March 2000 Online Infotrac. â€Å"Survey Asks Young Adults About Media Use.† The Quill Jan. 2000: p. 7 22 March 2000 Online Infotrac.

Market Segments

CUSTOMER-DRIVEN MARKETING STRATEGY: CREATING VALUE FOR TARGET CUSTOMERS PREVIEWING THE CONCEPTS – CHAPTER OBJECTIVES define the four major steps in designing a customer-driven marketing strategy: market segmentation, market targeting, differentiation, and positioning list and discuss the major bases for segmenting consumer and business markets explain how companies identify attractive market segments and choose a market targeting strategy discuss how companies differentiate and position their products for maximum competitive advantageJUST THE BASICS This chapter looks further into key customer-driven marketing strategy decisions—how to divide up markets into meaningful customer groups (segmentation), choose which customer groups to serve (targeting), create market offerings that best serve targeted customers (differentiation), and positioning the offerings in the minds of consumers (positioning). Then, the chapters that follow explore the tactical marketing tools the Four Ps—by which marketers bring these strategies to life. INTRODUCTIONBest Buy: Embracing the Angels and Ditching the Demons. Best Buy set out to identify its best customers and win their loyalty by serving them better. At the same time, it identifies less attractive customers and began to send them packing. To better differentiate itself in a crowded marketplace, Best Buy needed to stake out is own turn – to identify its best customers and serve them in ways that no discount on online competitor could. Rather than trying to make all customers happy all of the time, Best Buy segmented its market and sharpened it’s positioning.This resulted in what they term â€Å"customer centricity. How has this worked for Best Buy? Very well. They have designed a customer-driven marketing strategy that builds the right relationships with the right customers. Market segmentation involves dividing a market into smaller groups of buyers with distinct needs, characteristics , or behaviors that might require separate marketing strategies or mixes. Market targeting (or targeting) consists of evaluating each market segment’s attractiveness and selecting one or more market segments to enter.Differentiation involves actually differentiating the firm’s market offering to create superior customer value. Positioning consists of arranging for a market offering to occupy a clear, distinctive, and desirable place relative to competing products in the minds of target consumers. MARKET SEGMENTATION Through market segmentation, companies divide large, heterogeneous markets into smaller segments that can be reached more efficiently and effectively with products and services that match their unique needs. Segmenting Consumer Markets Geographic SegmentationGeographic segmentation calls for dividing the market into different geographical units such as nations, regions, states, counties, cities, or even neighborhoods. Demographic Segmentation Demographic se gmentation divides the market into groups based on variables such as age, gender, family size, family life cycle, income, occupation, education, religion, race, generation, and nationality. Demographic factors are the most popular bases for segmenting customer groups. Age and LifeCycle Stage is offering different products or using different marketing approaches for different age and lifecycle groups.Gender segmentation has long been used in clothing, cosmetics, toiletries, and magazines. Income segmentation has long been used by the marketers of products and services such as automobiles, clothing, cosmetics, financial services, and travel. Psychographic Segmentation Psychographic segmentation divides buyers into different groups based on social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics. Marketers use personality variables to segment markets. Behavioral Segmentation Behavioral segmentation divides buyers into groups based on their knowledge, attitudes, uses, or responses to a product.Occasion segmentation is grouping buyers according to occasions when they get the idea to buy, actually make their purchase, or use the purchased item. Benefit segmentation is grouping buyers according to the different benefits that they seek from the product. User Status is segmenting markets into nonusers, ex-users, potential users, first-time users, and regular users of a product. Usage Rate is grouping markets into light, medium, and heavy product users. Loyalty Status is dividing buyers into groups according to their degree of loyalty. Using Multiple Segmentation BasesMarketers rarely limit their segmentation analysis to only one or a few variables. PRIZM NE (one of the leading segmentation systems) classifies every American household based on a host of demographic factors. Segmenting Business Markets Consumer and business marketers use many of the same variables to segment their markets. Business marketers also use some additional variables, such as customer operating characteristics, purchasing approaches, situational factors, and personal characteristics. Many marketers believe that buying behavior and benefits provide the best basis for segmenting business markets.Segmenting International Markets Companies can segment international markets using one or a combination of several variables. * Geographic factors: Nations close to one another will have many common traits and behaviors. * Economic factors: Countries may be grouped by population income levels or by their overall level of economic development. * Political and legal factors: Type and stability of government, receptivity to foreign firms, monetary regulations, and the amount of bureaucracy. * Cultural factors: Grouping markets according to common languages, religions, values and attitudes, customs, and behavioral patterns.Intermarket segmentation is segmenting of consumers who have similar needs and buying behavior even though they are located in different countries. Requirements for Ef fective Segmentation To be useful, market segments must be: Measurable: The size, purchasing power, and profiles of the segments can be measured. Accessible: The market segments can be effectively reached and served. Substantial: The market segments are large or profitable enough to serve. Differentiable: The segments are conceptually distinguishable and respond differently to different marketing mix elements and programs.Actionable: Effective programs can be designed for attracting and serving the segments. MARKET TARGETING Evaluating Market Segments In evaluating different market segments, a firm must look at three factors: 1. Segment size and growth, 2. Segment structural attractiveness, and 3. Company objectives and resources. The largest, fastest-growing segments are not always the most attractive ones for every company. The company also needs to examine major structural factors that affect long-run segment attractiveness. * A segment is less attractive if it already contains m any strong and aggressive competitors. The existence of many actual or potential substitute products may limit prices and the profits. * The relative power of buyers also affects segment attractiveness. * A segment may be less attractive if it contains powerful suppliers who can control prices. Selecting Target Market Segments A target market consists of a set of buyers who share common needs or characteristics that the company decides to serve. Undifferentiated Marketing Using an undifferentiated marketing (or mass-marketing) strategy, a firm might decide to ignore market segment differences and target the whole market with one offer.This mass-marketing strategy focuses on what is common in the needs of consumers rather than on what is different. Differentiated Marketing Using a differentiated marketing (or segmented marketing) strategy, a firm decides to target several market segments and designs separate offers for each. Concentrated Marketing Using a concentrated marketing (or n iche marketing) strategy, instead of going after a small share of a large market, the firm goes after a large share of one or a few smaller segments or niches. It can market more effectively by fine-tuning its products, prices, and programs to the needs of carefully defined segments.It can market more efficiently, targeting its products or services, channels, and communications programs toward only consumers that it can serve best and most profitably. Micromarketing Micromarketing is the practice of tailoring products and marketing programs to suit the tastes of specific individuals and locations. Micromarketing includes local marketing and individual marketing. Local marketing involves tailoring brands and promotions to the needs and wants of local customer groups—cities, neighborhoods, and even specific stores. Local marketing has drawbacks. It can drive up manufacturing and marketing costs by reducing economies of scale. * It can create logistics problems. * The brand†™s overall image might be diluted if the product and message vary too much in different localities. Individual marketing is the tailoring of products and marketing programs to the needs and preferences of individual customers. Individual marketing has also been labeled one-to-one marketing, mass customization, and markets-of-one marketing. Choosing a Targeting Strategy Which strategy is best depends on: * Company resources. * Product variability. Product’s life-cycle stage. * Market variability. * Competitors’ marketing strategies. Socially Responsible Target Marketing Target marketing sometimes generates controversy and concern. Issues usually involve the targeting of vulnerable or disadvantaged consumers with controversial or potentially harmful products. Problems arise when marketing adult products to kids, whether intentionally or unintentionally. The growth of the Internet and other carefully targeted direct media has raised concerns about potential targeting ab uses. The issue is not so much who is targeted, but how and for what.Controversies arise when marketers attempt to profit when they unfairly target vulnerable segments or target them with questionable products or tactics. Socially responsible marketing calls for segmentation and targeting that serve not just the interests of the company, but also the interests of those targeted. DIFFERENTIATION AND POSITIONING Value proposition: How a company will create differentiated value for targeted segments and what positions it wants to occupy in those segments. A product’s position is the way the product is defined by consumers on important attributes. Positioning MapsPerceptual positioning map show consumer perceptions of their brands versus competing products on important buying dimensions. Choosing a Differentiation and Positioning Strategy The differentiation and positioning task consists of three steps: 1. Identifying a set of differentiating competitive advantages upon which to build a position, 2. Choosing the right competitive advantages, and 3. Selecting an overall positioning strategy. 1. Identifying Possible Value Differences and Competitive Advantages To the extent that a company can differentiate and position itself as providing superior customer value, it gains competitive advantage.It can differentiate along the lines of product, services, channels, people, or image. 2. Choosing the Right Competitive Advantages How Many Differences to Promote Ad man Rosser Reeves believes a company should develop a unique selling proposition (USP) for each brand and stick to it. Other marketers think that companies should position themselves on more than one differentiator. Which Differences to Promote A difference is worth establishing to the extent that it satisfies the following criteria: Important: The difference delivers a highly valued benefit to target buyers.Distinctive: Competitors do not offer the difference, or the company can offer it in a more distinc tive way. * Superior: The difference is superior to other ways that customers might obtain the same benefit. Communicable: The difference is communicable and visible to buyers. Preemptive: Competitors cannot easily copy the difference. Affordable: Buyers can afford to pay for the difference. Profitable: The company can introduce the difference profitably. 3. Selecting an Overall Positioning Strategy The full positioning of a brand is called the brand’s value proposition.More for More positioning involves providing the most upscale product or service and charging a higher price to cover the higher costs. More for the Same positioning involves introducing a brand offering comparable quality but at a lower price. The Same for Less positioning can be a powerful value proposition—everyone likes a good deal. Less for Much Less positioning is offering products that offer less and therefore cost less. â€Å"Less-for-much-less† positioning involves meeting consumers†™ lower performance or quality requirements at a much lower price. More for Less positioning is the winning value proposition.In the long run, companies will find it very difficult to sustain such best-of-both positioning. Developing a Positioning Statement Company and brand positioning should be summed up in a positioning statement. The statement should follow the form: To (target segment and need) our (brand) is (concept) that (point of difference). Communicating and Delivering the Chosen Position Once it has chosen a position, the company must take strong steps to deliver and communicate the desired position to target consumers. All the company’s marketing mix efforts must support the positioning strategy.Discussing the Issues 1. List and briefly describe the four major steps in designing a customer-driven marketing strategy. 2. Discuss the behavioral variables used to segment buyers and provide an example of each. 3. Explain how companies segment international markets. 4. Name and describe the characteristics of useful market segments. 5. In the context of marketing, what is a product’s â€Å"position†? How do marketers know what it is? Under the Hood: Marketing Technology When you think of hybrid or electric automobiles, you probably think don’t think â€Å"sports car. But the Fisker Karma is about to shatter that stereotype. It’s been called the hybrid with â€Å"sex appeal† and is often compared to a Mercedes-Benz roadster. During the haughty Rolex Monterey Historic Automobile Races, it was seen cruising around Monterey, California with the likes of Ferraris and Lamborghinis. In the increasingly crowded field of new-generation electric vehicles, Fisker Automotive wants to carve out a niche as a high-performance eco-car with lots of style. The creator, Henrik Fisker, was formerly head of design at Aston Martin.The Fisker Karma goes from 0 to 60 in six seconds, can go 125 miles per hour, and can travel 50 miles on electric power and 300 miles on combined electric and gasoline power. All this performance and style does not come cheaply, however. Prices range from $87,900 to $106,000. The company already has orders from 1,400 buyers. If this is above your means, don’t worry—the company is promising a lower-priced, mass-market version for the rest of us in a few years. 1. On what basis is Fisker Automotive segmenting the automobile market? Is the company using a single segmentation approach or a combined approach?Explain. 2. What market targeting strategy is Fisker pursuing with this automobile? How is the company differentiating its automobile and which value proposition is it using? Staying on the Road: Marketing Ethics In 2009 Anheuser-Busch launched the Bud Light â€Å"Fan Can,† a promotion that included 27 different color combinations of its cans in college team colors. For example, students at Louisiana State University could purchase purple-and-gold cans of Bud Li ght. Anheuser-Busch timed the campaign, called â€Å"Team Pride,† to coincide with students returning to campus and with the kickoff of the football season.Several schools, such as Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa State, University of Colorado, and others, objected strenuously. As a result, Anheuser-Busch halted the program in those markets. The promotion also caught the attention of the Federal Trade Commission. Both the FTC and college officials are concerned about the high rate of underage and binge drinking on college campuses. Some school officials also were concerned about trademark infringements, and about the appearance that they support Budweiser’s activities.As criticism brewed around the country, A-B released a statement claiming that it did not mean to encourage underage drinking—it just wanted to create more fun for sports fans. Although the company halted the promotion in areas where college officials objected, controversy surrounding the promotion appear ed in newspapers and on television nationwide. 1. What type of market targeting strategy is Anheuser-Busch using with the Team Pride promotion? 2. Was this a wise promotion? Explain. Rough Road Ahead: Marketing and the Economy Vanilla Bikes Portland-based Vanilla Bicycles sells hand-built bikes with price tags ranging from $4,000 to $12,000.Now, after only nine years in business, owner Sacha White has stopped taking orders – not because business had dried up but because he has a five-year waiting list. White and his crew of three make only 40 to 50 bikes a year. Frames are made from exotic metals, are welded with silver alloy, and weigh as little as 30 ounces. No two Vanilla bikes are the same. Each is custom fitted to the client and features intricate metal carvings and an artisan paint job. Amazingly, almost all of these high-end velocipedes are sold to middle-class customers. Still, orders have not ebbed with the economic downturn.In fact, Vanilla could ramp up production significantly and still sell everything it makes. However, White claims that would compromise the special nature of what customers consider to be works of art. Vanilla bikes are so special that when Portland bike couriers describe something as cool, they routinely say, â€Å"That’s soooo Vanilla. † 1. Based on the segmentation variables discussed in the chapter, construct a profile for Vanilla Bicycle’s probable target market. 2. Given that most luxury products suffer in an economic downturn, why has Vanilla still succeeded?

Fascist Consolidation essays

Fascist Consolidation essays Mussolini in Power faced problem a minority PM (prime minister) he had to manufactured report. He did not come to power as result of a popular majority. Mussolini offered order in society means unity. The acerbolaw made by Gia Como Acerbolaw he proposed a bill on electoral reform. The bill proposed that, that the party policy the most vote provided the gained at least 25 % would be given 2 % of seats in parliament. The remaining seals will be divided perpassionately. Bill received over whelming support in Parliament from Liberals in particular. In part this can be explained in terms of fear, the black shirts roomed the chamber before the vote. Also their fear of the left and the Fascists image of law and order. The Renault approved the law Nevember 1923 in April 1924. Despite the new electoral laws Fascist continuer to use violence and electoral fraud. The fascist and their allies won 66% of the vote. Out of 535 seats Fascist gained 374 seat. (They infact didnt need the Acerbolaw). When the new parliament met opposition tried to high light the Fascist action. In particular and in his book fascist exposed. He detached the violence and election that had gone on. On 10th of June 1924 Fascist kidnapped him and murdered him. This went plunged Mussolini and his government in crisis. At the end of June opposition deputies walked out of parliament (known as the aventone secession). Forcing the King to sack Mussolini public opinion limed against the PM which looked helpless. Fascist Coalitions to fragment.(the right wing and liberals started to unsupportable allies). A Senito Fascist Rossi wrote a testament implication implicating Mussolini in the murder and other crimes published in news papers. Even the black shirts started to turn against Mussoli ...

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During the late seventeen hundreds, many tumultuous events resulted in Colonial opposition to Great Britain. The conditions of rights of the colonists will slowly be changed as the constriction of the parliament becomes more and more intolerable. During the Seven Years' War England was not only alarmed by the colonists' insistence on trading with the enemy, but also with Boston merchants hiring James Otis inorder to protest the legality of the writs of assistance (general search warrants) used to hunt out smuggled goods. "let the parliament lay what burthens they please on us, we must, it is our duty to submit and patiently bear them, till they will be pleased to relieve us....". This is a very strong dictum, that in 1764, the colonists were of a submissive nature, and were weakly pleading for self-autonomy. This small fire of anger will become a huge conflagration as the rights are slowly rescinded. On October 19, 1765 the Stamp Act Congress and Parliamentary Taxation committee's passed some laws that attempted to strengthen the grip of the English crown. "I.That his Majesty's subjects in these colonies, owe the same allegiance to the Crown of Great Britain that is owing from his subjects born within the realm, and all due subordination to that august body, the Parliament of Great Britain." This statement can be used as a summation of the entire document that the Stamp Act Congress had initiated. The statement depicts the colonists has having to be submissive and servile in the view of Great Britain, this policy angered the colonists very much, and was another component of the transition of the colonists' When the Declatory Act was passed in March of 1766, many colonies were attempting to claim that they were "seceding" from "Whereas several of the houses of representatives in his Majesty's colonies and plantations in America, have of late,

Hiral Patel Essays (222 words) - Insurance, Reimbursement

Hiral Patel Essays (222 words) - Insurance, Reimbursement Hiral Patel BA 2196 Section 703/Paul A. Evangelista Writing Assignment: Scenario #3 Bad News Email To: Ashley Arnett From: Hiral Patel, Director, Human Resources Subject: Reimbursement Program Inquiry Dear Ashley, As the director of Human Resources, it has been my pleasure to receive your request that Fox Federal Credit Union establish a program to reimburse the tuition and book expenses for employees taking college courses. All employees deserve an equal opportunity to improve their educational credentials and skills from such programs. You show your dedication towards the company and towards yourself to further your education by taking college courses to improve your knowledge and skills. Flourishing companies can offer tuition reimbursement to employees who study further. These programs are costly to companies because they involve the cost of program administration that includes applications, monitoring, and record keeping. Although a tuition-reimbursement program is a favorable idea, I am sorry to inform you that at this time, reimbursing tuition and book expenses will not be possible. Fox Federal has limited funds and is also facing stiff competition that cannot cover the expense of such a program. Although we cannot consider a tuition-reimbursement program at this time, we will take it into consideration in the future. We appreciate your desire to further your education and wish you the best of luck for the future. Sincerely, Hiral Patel

Macro Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Macro Economics - Essay Example owth structures of the variables could be assumed to be concluding that the economy in the period of study is displaying a stable situation in spite of the regular periods of booms and recessions that are a part of the regular business cycle which every economy has to pass through. Apart from that, if the long run pattern has to be considered, it is found that the economy exhibits a stable condition. The pattern of movement of the macroeconomic variables in an economy are the ones that exhibit the way that the economy is moving at present, i.e., the present situation of the economy. The patterns of behavior that they exhibit are very important to take decision about the future plans and policies that the economy should be subjected to. For example, if an economy is going through a high inflationary phase then, the appropriate monetary policy should be to reduce the flow of money in the economy and thus check the amount of liquidity in the country. However, before doing so, it is also necessary for the decision makers to find out the exact root of the disturbance, i.e., if the excess money supply in the economy and not a low rate of interest is the cause behind the rising inflation. Thus the importance of checking the behavior of the macroeconomic variables is of key importance for the nationals and particularly the decision makers of a nation. In this paper, attempt has been mad e to study the pattern of behavior of a number of relevant macroeconomic variables, viz., the inflation rate, the gross investment, the inventory investment, the nominal rate of exchange between Australian and US dollars, the real exchange rate, the real rate of interest, the private household consumption, the unemployment rate, productivity of labour, the supply of money in the economy and the current account balance. The movements of all these variables taken together indicate how stable the economic situation is and how stable it is going to be over the future years and thus provide a

Financial Accounting and Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial Accounting and Report - Essay Example All these ratios have their own specific formulae and they are interpreted by experts by looking at the figures obtained from calculations. The management and the CFOs of large business entities and the users of these statements as well rely heavily on the ratios of a company (Tracy, 2012, p. 14). Net Profit Margins: The gross profit margin ratio shows how much net amount an entity earns on the percentage amount of sales made. This ratio is calculated in percentages and for the given scenario and data, the ratio calculated indicates the fact that the entity has earned sufficient net profits during the previous year. The ratio is sufficient evidence that the company has performed well for earning net profits quite enough for its forth coming years’ operations. Looking at the ratio, the new investors can be expected for making investment in the company as the figures of the ratio will boost their confidence that the company will continue to be performing well. The positive expectations regarding the increase in investors will also benefit the company as the management will look forward to expand the business with further investments for new investors. Current Ratio: Current ratio means the respective currency of current assets the company holds for a single respective unit currency of current liability (Leach, 2010). Or, simply, the number of Euros of current assets available to the company to meet a single euro of current liability. The current ratio for the company is quite favorable as it has 3.7 Euros in current assets to meet a single unit in its current liabilities. Gross profit ratio: The gross profit figure of the company is exactly half of the net sales as shown by the ratio. It is a good sign for the company regards the fact that their cost of sales is very nominal allowing the company to earn a sufficient amount of profit even if other operating expenses are a little higher. Since higher gross profits mostly result in higher net profits, therefore

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York - Essay Example The paintings in comparison belonged to the Impressionist era. They make an interesting comparison and discussion because impressionism had a rough start and was not accepted as a legitimate painting style before. Impressionism is an artistic style and movement that depicts the experience of the artist’s experience. Impressionism focuses on light rather than detail to evoke emotion from its art. They broke away from the traditional academic painting which emphasizes precision and correctness but instead emphasized on the free flow painting of the brush and the emotion of the painter. There are two celebrated artists during this period whose name resembles and who rose to prominence also marks the prominence of Impressionism both as an artistic method and movement. Among this is Auguste Renoir Manet's rise to prominence as an artist particularly in his work Boating is interesting because it can directly relate to impressionist's acceptance as an art and movement. Initially, Manet was reluctant to this new genre of painters known as Impressionists because they were not yet accepted during that time. The style of Impressionists breaks away with the academic traditions of the time. Nonetheless, he adopted the impressionist method marked by his work Boating which did not hide the brushwork and free flow movement of the paint.

Life Cycle Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Life Cycle Assessment - Essay Example In these way sustainable enterprises, therefore is one that contributes to sustainable development by delivering simultaneously economic, social and environmental benefits so called triple bottom-line (Elkington, 1994). The global challenges associated with sustainability, viewed through the appropriate set of business lenses, can help to identify strategies and practices that contribute to a more sustainable world and simultaneously, drive share holders value (Hart and Milstein, 2003). The sustainable value framework developed by Hart & Milstein (2003) creates four- quadrant contains sustainability vision clean technology, pollution prevention and product stewardship. Now to sustain the business on the long term basis, products must be more energy efficient, reduce end of life waste, decrease pollution etc. To develop this kind of product, we have to promote environmentally conscious design which promotes energy efficient and environmentally sensitive energy generation. Environmentally conscious design works within the economic and technological constraints to develop and use new technologies that are sustainable in the long run. Environmental conscious designs of the products are the necessity of the time and to develop these products, we face could face numerous problems as well as challenges. Now to develop a product this is environmentally conscious and have the design to support it is the subject of various areas. The process of designing such products is very cumbersome. There is continuous process to improve the design of the products. In the process of development of products, industries are including the waste handling in the scope of process and marking efforts to reframe or design processes which can use the existing waste facilities and to avoid the need to invest in new treatment facilities. In the process of design reevaluation, some efforts have been taken to integrate materials integration techniques as a cost effective ways of reducing pollutant emissions. In the process of developing environmentally conscious subjects, one must assess environmental impacts through life cycle assessment. In the lifecycle assessment (LCA), we must evaluate environmental impacts on the every stage of development of the products i.e., from starting to end. More and more academics have applied life cycle assessment to all the development of industry in Europe. LCA has represented by life cycle problem. Recently LCA represents a new way of thinking about the industries results into most cost effective development. The use of natural products, new way applied to produce time, use of raw materials and natural resources which ultimately minimize waste and adverse impact on people as well as natural environment. In the life cycle process, products entire life cycle from design to final uses and disposal as well as reuse of raw materials has been included. LCA shows a new way to think about manufacturing of the produc6ts which includes the most efficient and productive use of raw materials and natural resources. It is a process which depends on minimizing wastes, avoiding adverse impact on workers and on the natural environment. In the LCA application, we analyze the complete life of the product i.e. from design, raw material and natural resou

Research Topics with Explanation Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Topics with Explanation - Research Paper Example For example, the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act (2006) has been criticized severally for its notable inadequacies (Enniss,2008). Thus, there is a need to change some child welfare regulations. The selection of this topic is informed by the fact that human rights violations have continued to intensify in different parts of the world. It is agonizing to find that such violations have been occurring under the watch of the major world powers, who have turned a blind eye on such happenings, owing to the close and political-economic benefits that such powers obtain from their trade relations with the countries violating the human rights. A report has indicated that in 1999, the world gun market was worth $23 billion, of which $20 billion worth of guns were sold by the world major powers such as USA, France, Germany and Britain to the third world countries, which are involved in conflicts and human rights violations (Yanik, 2004). Therefore, this topic is important for addressing such social ills, and charting the forward towards a sustainable human rights respecting society. The targeted audience of this topic is the USA government, which should address the issue of trade with the human rights violating countries. The USA should severe trade relations with countries that have poor records on human rights. This topic has been selected owing to the raging debate over whether minors should be treated the same as adults in major crime cases where such minors are involved. There have been arguments that treating such minors as adults in such cases has the implication of increasing the rates of such serious crimes in the future (Bower, 2007). Further, the treatment of such minors as adults has the effect of undermining the rehabilitative needs of the minors and upholding the condemnation aspect. This discussion targets the

Organisational Culture in Social Work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Organisational Culture in Social Work - Essay Example It should be noticed that the service manager of the department is respected by the staff and for this reason no conflict can be observed within the workplace as everything is appropriately regulated and monitored in accordance with the commands of the service manager. The assessment team has as a main task the completion of assessments for children in Need (as described by the Children Act 1989), for pregnant women (pre-birth assessment) or even for young people that are admitted to hospital after an episode of self-harm. Despite the well structured organizational hierarchy, the hospital’s main building looks as being ready to fall apart while no initiatives of renovation have been taken until now. This is a fact that could influence negatively the hospital’s visitors. Apart from the above issue, the hospital’s operational structure should be characterized as effective; the responsibilities have been appropriately distributed among the existed staff and the supp ort provided to the hospital’s visitors can be considered as quite satisfactory taking into account the conditions under which the hospital’s employees have to proceed with their tasks. In order to evaluate the organizational culture of the hospital we could use the theories of Brown and Schein. In accordance with the former ‘with regards to organisational culture†¦the available literature offering the interested reader an embarrassment of definitional riches; it is unsurprising that there should be a great diversity of opinion concerning what the phrase ‘organisational culture’ refers to’ (Brown (1998, p. 7). Indeed, the description of organizational structure is a challenging task if taking into consideration the fact that firms’ culture can be differentiated in accordance with the structure of the ‘internal hierarchy’, the personal attitudes of the firm’s owners and the trends of the market (who are often considered as a criterion for the

Life Cycle Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Life Cycle Assessment - Essay Example In these way sustainable enterprises, therefore is one that contributes to sustainable development by delivering simultaneously economic, social and environmental benefits so called triple bottom-line (Elkington, 1994). The global challenges associated with sustainability, viewed through the appropriate set of business lenses, can help to identify strategies and practices that contribute to a more sustainable world and simultaneously, drive share holders value (Hart and Milstein, 2003). The sustainable value framework developed by Hart & Milstein (2003) creates four- quadrant contains sustainability vision clean technology, pollution prevention and product stewardship. Now to sustain the business on the long term basis, products must be more energy efficient, reduce end of life waste, decrease pollution etc. To develop this kind of product, we have to promote environmentally conscious design which promotes energy efficient and environmentally sensitive energy generation. Environmentally conscious design works within the economic and technological constraints to develop and use new technologies that are sustainable in the long run. Environmental conscious designs of the products are the necessity of the time and to develop these products, we face could face numerous problems as well as challenges. Now to develop a product this is environmentally conscious and have the design to support it is the subject of various areas. The process of designing such products is very cumbersome. There is continuous process to improve the design of the products. In the process of development of products, industries are including the waste handling in the scope of process and marking efforts to reframe or design processes which can use the existing waste facilities and to avoid the need to invest in new treatment facilities. In the process of design reevaluation, some efforts have been taken to integrate materials integration techniques as a cost effective ways of reducing pollutant emissions. In the process of developing environmentally conscious subjects, one must assess environmental impacts through life cycle assessment. In the lifecycle assessment (LCA), we must evaluate environmental impacts on the every stage of development of the products i.e., from starting to end. More and more academics have applied life cycle assessment to all the development of industry in Europe. LCA has represented by life cycle problem. Recently LCA represents a new way of thinking about the industries results into most cost effective development. The use of natural products, new way applied to produce time, use of raw materials and natural resources which ultimately minimize waste and adverse impact on people as well as natural environment. In the life cycle process, products entire life cycle from design to final uses and disposal as well as reuse of raw materials has been included. LCA shows a new way to think about manufacturing of the produc6ts which includes the most efficient and productive use of raw materials and natural resources. It is a process which depends on minimizing wastes, avoiding adverse impact on workers and on the natural environment. In the LCA application, we analyze the complete life of the product i.e. from design, raw material and natural resou

Organisational Culture in Social Work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Organisational Culture in Social Work - Essay Example It should be noticed that the service manager of the department is respected by the staff and for this reason no conflict can be observed within the workplace as everything is appropriately regulated and monitored in accordance with the commands of the service manager. The assessment team has as a main task the completion of assessments for children in Need (as described by the Children Act 1989), for pregnant women (pre-birth assessment) or even for young people that are admitted to hospital after an episode of self-harm. Despite the well structured organizational hierarchy, the hospital’s main building looks as being ready to fall apart while no initiatives of renovation have been taken until now. This is a fact that could influence negatively the hospital’s visitors. Apart from the above issue, the hospital’s operational structure should be characterized as effective; the responsibilities have been appropriately distributed among the existed staff and the supp ort provided to the hospital’s visitors can be considered as quite satisfactory taking into account the conditions under which the hospital’s employees have to proceed with their tasks. In order to evaluate the organizational culture of the hospital we could use the theories of Brown and Schein. In accordance with the former ‘with regards to organisational culture†¦the available literature offering the interested reader an embarrassment of definitional riches; it is unsurprising that there should be a great diversity of opinion concerning what the phrase ‘organisational culture’ refers to’ (Brown (1998, p. 7). Indeed, the description of organizational structure is a challenging task if taking into consideration the fact that firms’ culture can be differentiated in accordance with the structure of the ‘internal hierarchy’, the personal attitudes of the firm’s owners and the trends of the market (who are often considered as a criterion for the

Betrayal and Manipulation in the Accidental Billionaires Essay Example for Free

Betrayal and Manipulation in the Accidental Billionaires Essay In the Accidental Billionaires, the motif of manipulation and betrayal is prevalent. Mark Zuckerburg is the prime embodiment of manipulation and betrayal throughout the course of the work. Another character also attributed with such qualities is Sean Parker. Mark and Sean are similar in this aspect; manipulating their own world to achieve their goals. In the first few chapters of the book, the reader is introduced to the Winklevoss twins. The twins turn to Mark to aid them in their social networking idea, the HarvardConnection. After trusting Mark with their program, Mark begins to manipulate the idea into his own. In a very subtle way, Mark delays the twins in time to sire his own program. This action reveals to the reader that Mark is a lone wolf. Mark, told to us in the book, is not interested in money. For example, â€Å"†¦Microsoft had offered Mark between one and two million dollars to go to work for them-and amazingly, Mark had turned them down† (Mezrich 15). This action should be noted as the aspect of working alone seems to be, to Mark, the most efficient way to achieve fame. Mark is highly influenced by Bill Gates, a man who rose out of the very same school Mark attends and manipulated his way throughout his pursuits of Microsoft, and in Mark’s point of view, individual. With his displeasing physique and social incompetence, it is easy to see why people underestimate Mark and are taken advantage of. Another character to note is Sean Parker. Sean Parker is a foil to the protagonist, Mark. Mark pairs up with Sean after he launches ‘thefacebook’. Sean has a history of manipulating his way through major companies with the agenda of getting rich only, quite the opposite of Mark. Sean is extremely energetic, whereas Mark seems to be lazy as represented by his lack variety in his attire- flipflops, jeans, etc. Sean, however, was betrayed by those companies he used to work for, but, ironically, he pursues yet another company that betrays him in the end. Betrayal, through manipulation, is in the subtitle of the book, â€Å"A tale of sex, money, genius, and betrayal. † Betrayal is mentioned last in this climax because that is to show the most important motif and a symbol of the book’s overall structure- It goes from Eduardo and Mark seeking attention to ‘get laid’, then pursue money with genius innovation of modern social networking, and finally, Mark’s betrayal is concluded when he removes Eduardo and Sean from his life because they threatened his brainchild, Facebook. The motif of betrayal is very subtle to the reader. Even after reading the subtitle that Mezrich so blatantly states before the beginning chapter, I was manipulated into completely forgetting about betrayal and instead was focused on the pursuit to fame. Even the title fools the reader in stating the plural form of billionaire, but only one billionaire is spawned at the conclusion of the book. Just as the twins, Eduardo, and Sean, Mark’s real agenda was cloaked to me, until it finally dawned in the closing chapters.

Auditor Liability: History, Changes and the Enron Case

Auditor Liability: History, Changes and the Enron Case Audits are carried out to ascertain the validity and reliability of the companys information especially financial information and provide an assessment on the effectiveness of the internal control system. Auditors are responsible to express appropriate audit opinion on the financial statements so as to give a true and fair view of the companys financial position based on the audit evidence they obtained throughout the audit procedures performed. Although auditors need not purposely design audit procedures to detect fraud, they are required to disclose the fraud that they have identified immediately. Recently, audit liability has become an international issue that attracts the concern of practitioners and academicians alike. Auditors liability is the possible legal obligation of an auditor for breach of contract or negligence. Auditors liability can be derived from contract law where auditor is bound by the contract or engagement letter and auditors liability is based on breach of contract; common law where the auditors liability concept is based on auditors negligence, gross negligence or fraud that are developed through court decisions; or statutory law where liability is developed through state statutes or Federal securities laws. An auditor can be held liable for breach of contract, negligence, gross negligence or fraud. Breach of contract will cause the auditor to be liable to their clients while negligence, gross negligence or fraud will lead to the auditors liability towards clients and also third parties. 2.0 The Evolution of Auditors Liability This report will basically discuss on the trend of auditor liability to third parties in United Kingdom (UK) and United States (US) as the liability pressure in these two countries is predominantly intense. The trend of auditor liability to clients will not be discussed in this report as it does not change much. This is because the auditors liability to clients occurs only when there is breach of contract, i.e. when the auditor fails to meet the requirements that were established in the contract or normally in the engagement letter. Prior to 1970s, claims against auditors were relatively rare although the issue of auditors liability to clients and certain third parties has always been there. Nowadays, the number of lawsuits against auditors and public accounting firm have increase in the countries such as US, Canada, UK and Australia. Hence, the auditing profession faces litigation crisis and needs to spend a lot of time and costs defending against the lawsuits. The increase in litigation has brought about some negative effects. For instance, the litigation cost and cost of professional liability insurance of an audit firm has increased which will affect the ability and going concern of the audit firm, and increasing number of capable and experienced accountants leaving the profession which may lead to the issue of lack of accounting professionals in future. Unless action is taken, the future of auditing is under threat; this is clearly not in the publics interest (Ward, G., 1999). As there are many negative effects from the litigation, many researches have been done and proposed that the auditor liabilitys scope should be limited to reduce the litigation risk of an audit firm. The most common suggestions include replacing of joint and several liabilities with proportionate liability, capping of auditor liability to a particular limit and so forth. The scope of auditors liability is expected to be limited in future if the suggestions have been implemented. According to Pacini, C., Hillison, W. Sinason, D. (2000), the trend of the legal liability of auditor to third parties has emerged towards a narrower scope. 2.1 United Kingdom (UK) The issue of auditor liability in UK can be determined at the national level where the decision that binds on all the courts in the country is made at the highest national court. Before 1964, it is relatively difficult for a third party to sue an auditor for negligent misstatements. However, the situation has change in 1964 due the case of Hedley Byrne Co. vs Heller Partners Ltd. (1964). After Hedley Byrne case, there was an apparent trend in the expanding of the scope of duty of auditor to third parties. The case of Hedley Byrne generally provides certain tests that must be satisfied for extending the auditors duty of care to third parties: (1) the auditor must aware that the financial statements are to be used for a particular purpose, (2) a known party was intended to rely on financial statements for that purpose, and (3) there must have been some conduct on the part of the auditor linking him to that party, which indicates the auditors understanding of that partys reliance (Messier, W. F., 2007). This case has brought about the concept of reliance where the auditor will be liable if they had been negligent in conducting audit and the third party had relied on the financial statements audited by them. For auditor to be liable to third parties, it must be reasonable for a third party to place reliance on the auditors report and that the auditors were alert that the person would rely on the report. Next, the case of JEB Fasteners Ltd. vs Marks Bloom Co. (1981) and Twomax Ltd. and Goode vs Dickson, McFarlane Robinson (1982) had emphasize on the concept of foreseeability which seems to lead to the view of unlimited auditor liability. The auditors should be able to anticipate that third party will use the audited financial statement as a guideline in decision making process. Both cases had resulted in the growing number of third parties which have a legal right to sue auditor for negligence. In other word, auditors liability to third parties has increased. According to Pacini, C., Hillison, W. Sinason, D. (2000), the widening area of auditor liability to third parties was virtually reversed by the decision of the House of Lords in the Caparo Industries plc. vs Dickman Others (1990) case. From Caparo case, it was held that three necessary tests must be done in order to determine whether a duty of care by auditor can be imposed. First, the foreseeability of the occurrence of damages due to the misstatement must exist. Secondly, a relationship of proximity must exist between auditor and the suing party. Lastly, it must be just and reasonable to put into effect the duty of care on the one party for the benefit of the other. Auditor will only be liable to the third parties if these three criteria have been fulfilled. Since Caparo case, several cases involving alleged auditors negligence have occurred and the UK courts continued to limit the auditors liability to third party. In a nutshell, the Caparo decision has lessened the scope of auditor liability to third parties for negligent misstatements and cutting back the trend of extending the auditor liability to the unlimited class of investing public. 2.2 United States (US) In US, the issue of auditors liability is determined by the state courts or state legislatures separately where different judicial reasoning are applied in different jurisdictions which results in various rules of law in different states. Four different legal standards have evolved in different states of US to judge the auditor liability to third parties which include privity rule, near privity standard, restatement standard and lastly reasonable foreseeability standard. Different states will adopt different standard which will lead to a different result. Until the mid 1980s, the trend of the auditors liability in US still reflected a tendency toward widen scope of auditor liability to third parties. 1986 is the turning point of auditors liability in the US when Illinois passed an accountant privity statute and since then a trend has emerged toward a more narrow scope of duty to third parties (Pacini, C., Hillison, W. Sinason, D, 2000). 2.3 Summary As a conclusion, the evidence supports a trend towards limiting auditor liability to third-party in both UK and US. 3.0 Current Status of Auditors Liability 3.1 Public Perspective Fraud detection The extend of auditors liability largely depends on the responsible that is borne by a particular auditor. However, the liability pressures enforced to auditor has been increasing in several countries. The current public perspective is that auditors are no longer merely responsible to provide true and fair view on financial statement, but also responsible of detecting fraud on the company operation (Reffett.A,2010). Auditors negligence may as a result cause them to get involved in legal suits. A research has shown that the legal environment in five main countries, which include United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and USA, has examined the legal climate in relative to the auditors liability because third parties in those countries are filling lawsuit against auditors negligent misrepresentation in the financial statement. Therefore, current legal framework is trying to narrow down the liability of auditors to reduce their litigation risk (Reffett.A ,2010). In addition to that, auditor is now currently refusing to accept high risk client audit engagement and increase the cost for professional liability insurance so as to reduce their liability. That is because they need to protect their professions. Otherwise, auditors liability will become gradually heavier as if they will be sued when they failed to detect fraud. Yet, should auditor free from their negligence on the financial statement as their scope of responsibilities are mainly not detecting fraud? (Hassink. H, Meuwissen.R, Bollen.L ,2010). To clarify that, some researches have been done. Research has shown that there is certain level of fraud that can be detected by auditors. Therefore, if auditor fails to detect certain level of fraud, he is said to be liable for negligence. There are a certain standard which has been set to determine auditors liability. Those are the level of evidence for the type of fraud cases to be detected by auditors; determine whether auditors have complied with auditing standards regarding fraud to the impact on various context variables that has been detected by auditors. Another issue raised is that whether or not auditors who are able to collect more fraud evidence are considered to be doing the right things. The answers are still in question and it is really based on judgments from the public (Pacini.C , Hillison.W , Sinason.D ,2000). Because of that, expectation gap somehow exist while carrying out the audit work. 3.2 Lender Perspective Interjecting themselves into decision making of a company Auditor is responsible of expressing opinion on the going concern position of client. If auditor fails to express the opinion, auditor will be liable for negligence. However, in fact, auditors are expressing opinion based on the sufficient information provided by the accountants. However, if auditors express an opinion on the existence of the company for the next twelve months, auditors get involved into decision making process of a company (Pacini.C , Hillison.W , Sinason.D , 2000). These responsibilities should be borne by accountants of that company. That is because the time frame provided by auditor to access the going concern of a company will be too short. Therefore, the opinion provided may not be correct. Yet, as the issue of going concern for a company is important for users, especially lenders and suppliers, they may file lawsuit against auditors due to auditors negligence. 3.3 Legal Perspective Judges have bias in making evaluation on auditors decisions Auditors will often make their professional judgment while making decisions. Yet, sometimes, they may fail to foresee anticipated financial problems or any fraudulent act of the client. However, judges has become bias for evaluating the decision made and liability borne by auditors, especially after the failure of Arthur Anderson in discovering that its client has significantly understated the amount of obsolete inventory (Anderson. J.C, Jennings. M.M, Lowe.D.J, Reckers.M.J , 1997). By law, auditor will be liable for their negligence as if they do not exercise due care while conducting an audit. However, when judges tend to believe that auditors purposely breach its professions and professional requirement, they may make wrong judgments while determining the liability of auditor. To reduce the auditors liability, accounting profession has enacted the audit standards to expand auditors responsibilities to reduce the number of audit failures. However, these efforts will not help a lot as if they are done alone. Most importantly, we have to debias the judges in their decision making process. There are lots of methods that have been used to debias or to reduce the judgment errors. That is because judges play important roles in controlling important element of the trial. For example, there are some specific methods designed for judges to determine the liability borne by auditors. Therefore, a correct judgment can be reached. However, in reality, judges do not really believe in due diligence of auditor because of the increase in number of corporate scandals in recent years. Despite the bias view by judges, UK government has talk on contributory negligence to reduce the liability against negligent auditors. In addition to that, US Private Securities Litigation Reform Act enabled auditors to have negotiation on proportional liability so as to protect auditors from their liability towards shareholders. However, the enforcement of those acts seems to be the main reason behind US audit failures. It is claimed that auditors are given substantial protection. That is because the situation has made the investor has no way to sue parties like law and accounting firm which may get involved in fraudulent activities (Anderson. J.C, Jennings. M.M, Lowe.D.J, Reckers.M.J , 1997). 3.4 Shareholder Perspective Auditor needs to give absolute opinion rather than reasonable opinion on financial statements To reduce the power of manipulation of directors, auditors are indirectly becoming the agent appointed by shareholders to be independent parties of company and directors. Yet, shareholders at the same time doubt the independent of the auditors while they carry out their audit work. That is because they do not know the extent of the auditors honesty and integrity (Sikka.P, Filling.S, Pik Liew, 2009). However, as shareholders are constrained by lots of liability arrangement which can safeguard auditors professions, shareholders hold on to the opinion that auditors hold the responsibility to discover any irregularities in the company and any inconsistency raised. Therefore, auditor holds a responsibility that they have to be able to assess the effectiveness of the internal control inside the corporation, supported with relative substantive procedures within a short audit period. After carrying out all the audit work, it is the responsibility of auditor to reach to an accurate conclusion, especially those concerning financial difficulties and going concern of the clients company. Auditors are liable for shareholders in respect of the truthfulness of the presentation of financial statement. Their liability is going to be heavier because of the increase of complexity of the accounting environment and practices (Sikka.P, Filling.S, Pik Liew ,2009). 3.5 Summary As a whole, it is still a question whether less liability for auditors in certain areas will encourage more accurate financial statement. These are still challenges ahead for the auditor, especially facing legal suits filed by third parties due to misrepresentation of financial statement. 4.0 Relevance of the Topic 4.1 Enron Case Summary of the Case During the 1990s, Enron is a relatively small domestic Texan energy company. Then, Enron become one of the largest US corporations with a selection of international energy trading and utility operations. Enron has a strong profits grew and its market value has reached $70 billion (Accountancy as cited in Unerman ODwyer, 2004). However, concerns relating to Enrons profitability and the major share sales by senior executives have driven a slow but continual decline in share prices in August 2000. In October 2001, US stock market was shocked by the announcement of Enron about the accounting adjustments leading to a significant loss for its third quarter of $618 million and a decrease in its reported net asset value of around $1.2 billion. (BusinessWeek cited in Unerman ODwyer, 2004). At the following weeks, the aggressive earnings management practices by hiding large scale losses and liabilities on off balance sheet was revealed. The senior executives of Enron had created about 3500 off balance sheet partnerships (Special Purpose Entities (SPEs)) (Sloan cited in Unerman ODwyer, 2004). Enron filed for Chapter 11 within 2 months. It has become the largest corporation to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy with $55 billion estimates of outstanding liabilities. Many official inquiries into Enron where started after the company was collapsed (McLean cited in Unerman ODwyer, 2004). Auditor of Enron Arthur Andersen Arthur Andersen, one of the Big Five global auditing firms, was auditor of Enron. In January 2002 allegation surfaced that, Andersen had shattered most of its working papers with Enron when the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) initiated the investigations into accounting practices at Enron (The Business cited in Unerman ODwyer, 2004). Further investigations disclosed that Andersen had played a key role in developing the aggressive earnings management techniques executed by Enron. Andersen was exposed to conflicts of interest because it made more fees in 2000 from selling consulting services to Enron ($27 million) than it did from auditing the Enrons accounts ($25 million) (McLean cited in Unerman ODwyer, 2004). Many clients of Anderson were switched to other big auditing firms because they lost faith in Andersen after these revelations. Andersen was collapsed due to this withdrawal of trust. As a result, there are only Big Four global auditing firms after Enron case. SOX and its impact on Auditors Liability Sarbenes-Oxley Act (SOX) was enacted after the collapse of Enron. A lot of major developments in auditors liability have arisen in US as a result of SOX. The main purpose of SOX is to increase the transparency of financial reporting by improving corporate disclosure and governance practices and to encourage an ethical climate (Toda McCarty as cited in Chung, Farrar, Poonam Thorne, 2010). Auditors liability to third parties has increased because SOX specifies the scope of third parties to whom an auditor owes a duty of care, and requires accounting firm to issue additional financial reports, add disclosure in financial reports or issue new reports about themselves (Chung et al., 2010). Since third parties could rely on this new information which is not previously required when making investment or credit decisions, it increases auditors liability to third parties. In addition, SOX has higher penalties for violations of it as compared to previous legislation. This amendment increases significantly the legal liability of auditors practicing in US. International Reactions after Enron Case In response to SOX, many countries all over the world for example Canada, U.K.., Australia and New Zealand have enacted their legislation. New oversight bodies have been created in U.S. and Canada (Chung et al., 2010). Moreover, the legislation in U.K. and Australia has been modified, and the Institute of Chartered Accountants in New Zealand has issued corporate governance guidelines (Chung et al., 2010). The quick actions taken by countries are to fulfill shareholders demand after numerous failures on trying to increase the auditors liability to third parties. Malaysian Reactions after Enron Case In Malaysia, Malaysian regulators have constructed a more organized and disciplined financial reporting structure to ensure compliance and provide more confidence to the public (MIA Editorial Team, 2002). Hence, Malaysias auditor liability has increased in post-Enron era. Nevertheless, numerous fraud events were discovered in local companies such as Transmile, Megan Media and the Port Klang Free Zone in recent years. Thus, then-Prime Minister Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi declared the need to set up an audit oversight mechanism to control and administer the financial reporting of the Public Interest Entity (PIE) in his Budget Speech 2008. In year 2010, Parliament of Malaysia has approved the Securities Commission (Amendment) Act 2010 which gives the permission to set up the Audit Oversight Board (AOB). The AOBs mission is to oversee the auditors of PIE and protect investors interest by promoting confidence in the quality and reliability of their audited financial statement (Gomes, 2010). Moreover, AOB will ensure that Malaysian regulatory framework for auditors are in line with international practices. The establishment of AOB virtually increases auditors liability. 5.0 Own Opinions Regarding the Issue of Auditors Liability 5.1 Impacts of Increased Auditors Liability Article entitled Scope of Auditors Liability, Audit Quality, and Capital Investment mentioned that the accounting profession has been facing increasing number of third-party lawsuits since 1960s. Lawsuits against auditors have resulted in direct financial effects as well as other non-financial effects to the profession and society. Audit firms are experiencing increased costs to settle lawsuits which include the management time and insurance premiums. Moreover, audit firms have suffered negative impact on reputation due to the negative publicity arising from litigation. Also, from the article entitled Auditor liability to third parties: an international focus, it is claimed that the increase in litigation for auditors has led to some detrimental effects. One of the effects is accounting firms now have became more persistent in rejecting the engagement with clients that are viewed to possess high-litigation-risk. Besides that, theres a decrease in the availability and increase in the cost for professional liability insurance. Eventually, many of the experienced accountants gradually depart from the profession. In addition, Bialkin and Cooper (1986) warned that the trend of expanding the scope of auditors liability to third parties will result in a fall in the quality level as well as the scope of services provided by the profession. 5.2 The Need to Minimize Auditors Liability Therefore, theres a need to minimize auditors legal liability. We need to minimize the legal liability of auditors because if the legal liability of auditors continues to rise without any control enforced, the profession might face a severe lack of experienced people in the profession. Accountants and auditors will start quitting the field fearing that they might be the next to face litigation due to negligence. This will eventually results in a chaos in the corporate world when the day where no competent auditors are available to audit the financial statements arrived. In order to minimize auditors legal liability, steps have been taken by the professionals and by individual firms. 5.3 Ways to Minimize Auditors Liability A special committee was formed by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants in the late 1985 in order to develop a legislative program for liability reform. The program focuses to limit the scope of auditors liability to third parties by retaining the privity standard. Privity approach, Restatement approach, Foreseeability approach Derek K. Chan (2002) concluded in his paper that from an efficiency approach, the privity approach is the best approach to confine an independent auditors work if compared to Restatement approach and foreseeability approach. This is because privity approach provides the firm a credible mechanism where the firm can identify lenders into two groups within its own discretion 1. Lenders who are eligible to recover their losses from the auditors; 2. Lender who are excluded from recovering their damages from the auditors. Restatement approach provides less flexibility for the firm to decide which lenders are eligible, hence expands auditors liability. The foreseeability approach offers no flexibility at all to the firm as this approach broadens auditors liability to include foreseeable third parties who will rely on the audited financial statements. In our opinion, the privity approach is in fact the best approach thus far in order to limit auditors liability. Furthermore, in order to minimize auditors liability, auditors should be setting proper audit plans and perform the best audit strategy. They should follow closely every audit guidelines provided, and never cross over the forbidden lines. 5.4 The Need to Impose Litigations on Auditors Generally, auditors nowadays are quick to issue standard unqualified opinion on financial statements due to the legal protection system. Moreover, although litigations are imposed to auditors, due to the limited liability, auditors are continuing with their tendency to issue the standard unqualified report. Example of legal protection system According to the article entitled Auditors liability-no need to detect fraud, the author concluded that fraudster is not supposed to sue his auditors for failing to detect his fraud. Applying ex turpi causa non oritur actio, if one is engaged in illegal activity, one cannot sue another for damages that arose out of that illegal activity. In the case Moore Stephens (a firm) v. Stone Rolls Ltd. (in liquidation) [2009] UKHL 39, the House of Lords has decided that the illegality defense still applies. In other words, it is determined that Stone Rolls Ltd could not rely on its own illegal acts to claim for damages from its auditor. However, in our opinion, this principle ex turpi causa non oritur actio cannot universally pardon auditors of a duty to detect fraud nor to totally protect them from any litigation. Auditors should undergo a fair trial and be judged reasonably if they were found guilty of conspiracy in the fraud case. Additionally, co-operation between auditors and directors increase the tendency of auditors to issue the standard unqualified opinion. Modifications and adjustments are made for the benefits of management and auditors at the expense of shareholders. As a result, apart from the effort to minimize the auditors liability, in our opinion, theres still a need to impose appropriate legal actions on auditors who are involved in fraud cases because this is the right thing to do in order to maintain the fairness in the corporate world as well as to place emphasis on the importance of ethics and integrity in the profession. 5.5 Conclusion Suggestions Therefore, from our groups perspective, the current condition of auditors liability indicates an imperative need to strike a balance between imposing litigation on auditors who commit fraud or who fail to comply with the approved auditing standards and minimizing auditors legal liability at the same time. In addition, auditors should be well aware of their real masters which are the shareholders. They should get on the job and reveal the fraudsters if any were found. Auditors should be carrying the burden of being accountable for pensioners and investors lost funds. Our group believes that it is time to strike a change in the auditing industry. Auditors should chuck away their old habits and ensure that figures are appropriately presented. Moreover, auditors who had committed fraud should be blacklisted. Audit firms should be brave to accept blames and consequences whenever any fraud is found due to negligence of auditors. Last but not least, we should encourage perfect market competition in this industry. More auditing firms should rise and its time to stop large firms oligopolistic position. 6.0 Conclusion Increased auditors liability poses an advantage for the shareholders and other third parties who use the audited financial statements. This is because with more auditors liability, auditors will tend to be more cautious in their works. They will place emphasis on the importance of conducting appropriate audit procedures and to disclose any discrepancy found. Besides that, they will abide by the law and follow the auditing standards closely in order to avoid any unnecessary litigation. However, as discussed, it is proven that an increase in the auditors liability brought a lot of negative impact on the auditing and accounting profession. People started to response in ways that will protect themselves such as quitting the job or reject high risk audit engagement. Hence, its still an issue as whether less liability or more liability for auditors in certain areas will encourage more accurate and better assurance in the audited financial statements. Why Do the Same Notes Sound Different in Instruments? Why Do the Same Notes Sound Different in Instruments? Why do instruments sound different despite playing t/he same notes? When we listen to music, we are exposed to various different instruments. Choice of instrumentation is one of the main factors that contribute to the overall feeling of a song. Even though major and minor chords and scales can be played across most instruments, the instrument that is chosen to play the note plays a large part in what the musician wants to express. For instance, a double bass playing an E may come across as serious, but a flute playing the same note may come across as cheerful. I aim to investigate why such is the case. Across all instruments, notes are produced by creating standing wave, which will be discussed below. It is these standing waves that cause the air surrounding the object to vibrate, causing a sound wave to spread out. The main factor that causes different sounds in an instrument is the harmonic frequencies and overtones that an instrument outputs on notes, with other factors such as material affecting this factor. A vibrating string does not produce a single frequency, but a mixture of fundamental frequencies and overtones. Say that that an A note is being played on a violin string. If just the fundamental harmonic is heard, it would sound dull. It would also sound similar to other instruments playing the same note in the same pitch, provided only the fundamental frequency is being heard. However, when the string is bowed, multiple harmonic frequencies are produced at the same time. You cannot necessarily hear each harmonic note being played, as all these harmonics blend in to produce the overall sound you are hearing. This image shows the harmonic frequencies, also known as the harmonic scale, that are involved when an A note is played on a violin. These are found by stopping the vibrating string at certain intervals. Pythagoras noticed this when he stopped a vibrating string halfway along its length, which brought the pitch to an octave higher. He did this every half interval of the previous half interval, and found that the pitch consistently became an octave higher. He also found that when the string was stopped a third way through, an octave and a fifth was produced, which also produced increasing pitches in octave intervals. To examine the formula relating the wavelengths, we need to understand how waves are formed on a string. A standing wave is produced when a driver transfers energy to the medium. Energy is transferred down the string, and as it is trapped between two points, reflects of one end and superimposes with waves coming in the opposite direction. However, standing waves6 do not occur at any frequency. Only at specific frequencies do standing waves occur. When transferring energy to the medium at the right frequency, the fundamental frequency is produced. In the case of a violin, the bow that bows the string is the driver, and the string is the medium. Let L be the length of the string, and ÃŽ » be the length of the wave. Let F be the frequency, and velocity of the string be V. As velocity is constant, and v = F ÃŽ », F is inversely proportional to ÃŽ ». At the fundamental frequency5, ÃŽ »0 = (2/1)L and F0 = (v/ ÃŽ »0) , as depicted in this image http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~coursedev/Online%20tutorials/Waves.htm As the string is stopped at certain intervals, as Pythagoras did, nodes and antinodes are produced. This is a result of constructive and destructive interference occurring, nodes being points of displacement where destructive interference occurs, due to a Ï€ phase difference, and antinodes being where constructive interference occurs, due to a 2Ï€ phase difference, as shown in this image. http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~coursedev/Online%20tutorials/Waves.htm This causes ÃŽ »1 = (2/2) L, F1 = (v/ ÃŽ »1) Considering the fact that the first harmonic causes a relation of ÃŽ »0 =2L, we can see from this image that the wavelength has halved. When the string is stopped a third of the length through, such an image occurs. This produces ÃŽ »2 = (2/3)L, F2 = (v/ ÃŽ »2). The pattern is consistent for the fourth, fifth, sixth and so on harmonic. From here a formula can be formed relating the wavelength of the harmonic to the length of the string. For the first harmonic, ÃŽ »0 = (2/1)L and F0 = (v/ ÃŽ »0). In the second, the denominator of coefficient of L increases by one, whilst F varies according to the wave being produced, in the relationship of Fn ∠ (1/ ÃŽ »n), and the same thing occurs for the third harmonic. So, for the nth harmonic, n being a natural number, this formula shows what the wavelength will be; ÃŽ »n =(2/n)L. As discussed, previously, a note produced on an instrument creates various harmonics. Therefore, by taking the sum of the amplitudes of each harmonic, we can find the shape of the wave produced when a note is played. This is depicted below. 2 A fundamental note of, say, 100 Hz 2 A second harmonic of, say, 200 Hz 2 Adding both waves together produces the resultant patterns above. Just from this very simple example above, we can already visually see how mixtures of harmonics and overtones create interesting waves. From this we can see that different instruments harmonic scales must have different properties. The various harmonics on each instrument do not necessarily have the same strength. For instance, a clarinet is strong in the odd numbered harmonics, but weaker in the even numbered harmonics, whilst a flute is stronger the other way round. 1 As a real life example, this graph shows all the frequencies that are produced when a violinist bows a D note, at 294 Hz. http://www.nagyvaryviolins.com/tonequality.html From close inspection we can see that the first harmonic occurs at around 300Hz. The second harmonic occurs around 600Hz, and the next harmonic at around 900Hz. This fits in with the relationship of Fn ∠ (1/ ÃŽ »n). In each harmonic step, the wavelength decreases, but the frequency increases which is the case above. From the first to second harmonic the wavelength goes from 2L to L, which is a decrease of scale factor  ½. Yet the frequency has increase by a scale factor of 2, which fits the relationship. This graph shows the frequencies produced when a vocalist produces the same note, at the same frequency. http://www.nagyvaryviolins.com/tonequality.html You can see by comparison that there are similarities in the shape of each graph, but with subtle differences. Although the harmonics occur in the same pattern as above, their peaks are slightly different, and at frequencies beyond 5000 Hz the frequencies outputted by the vocalist have a much lower dB than the violin. Therefore we can conclude that the harmonic scales, as shown on the first page, must vary for each instrument. The various harmonics1 on each instrument do not necessarily have the same strength. For instance, a clarinet is strong in the odd numbered harmonics, but weaker in the even numbered harmonics, whilst a flute is stronger the other way round. However, even the same instruments have certain characteristics that distinguish them from other instruments in the same category. For example, a Gibson Les Paul, a type of guitar, produces a much heavier tone than a Fender Stratocaster, and you can even tell the difference between a cheap Les Paul and a custom shop Les Paul if you listen closely. This is down to the materials used to create the instrument, and the dimensions chosen. This is explained below, using the example of a violin. The belly and back plates of a violins4 body are designed to easily resonate. To identify these frequencies, the Authors of this page mechanically drove isolated violin bellies. The force applied is the driving force, and to see the frequency response an accelerometer was used. The acceleration was then monitored, enabling them to plot the ratio of force to acceleration against frequency. Chlandi patterns7 were then used to identify which frequencies the plates resonated at most easily. Chlandi patterns are symmetrical patterns formed when a standing wave is formed on the plate. To see these patterns, granules of sand are placed on the plate, much like iron fillings are used to show the magnetic field of a magnet. The most important frequencies patterns were placed on the graph below. We can see that the resonant frequency is 163Hz as it is forms the most symmetrical pattern, and is the first symmetrical pattern to occur. Resonant frequency is found using the formula6 F = 1/2Ï€ sqrt (k/m), where K is the spring constant and m is the mass. Therefore the closer the frequency is to this frequency, the closer it is to the resonant frequency. Therefore k and m vary according to dimensions and materials used, the resonant frequency varies between instruments, even of the same make. Gibson Les Paul guitars3 are made from mahogany, a dense wood, whilst Fender Stratocaster guitars are made from either ash or alder wood. These types of wood are lighter and less dense than mahogany, which results in the brighter tone Fender Stratocasters are known for, and the heavier and darker tone Gibson Les Pauls are known for. It is the way that the wood responds to the vibrations that travel through it when a note is played that causes this. As discussed above, the body of a violin has certain frequencies it resonates best at. It can be applied here, and can be deduced that the denser material does not pronounce higher frequencies with the same clarity as the less dense material, therefore causing this difference in tone. To conclude, it seems that the main factor that affects the quality of a note produced on an instrument is the harmonics that an instrument produces. The fundamental frequency and harmonics that are expressed the most depends on the dimensions of the instrument and the materials. Even in the cases of the same instrument they can sound different depending on the skill of the maker. It is fascinating to realise that the reason why there are so many instruments in the world and why we are able to experience all these different sounds and feelings are essentially down to the physics of standing waves and resonance. Sources: http://homepage.ntlworld.com/terence.dwyer/The%20Harmonic%20Series%20Explained.pdf http://www.phys.uconn.edu/~gibson/Notes/Section4_2/Sec4_2.htm http://www.differencebetween.net/object/difference-between-gibson-and-fender/ http://newt.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/violintro.html http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-4/Fundamental-Frequency-and-Harmonics Adams S. and Allday J., Advanced Physics, Oxford, Oxford University press, pg http://skullsinthestars.com/2013/05/02/physics-demonstrations-chladni-patterns/